The Stoic philosopher Seneca was not alone among the Roman elite in wondering how it had possibly come to pass in Jerusalem that “the vanquished have given laws to the victors.”

Perusia revealed the pattern. Octavian first reconstituted respect in Rome by navigating the treacherous currents of land redistribution. He then won a battle by entrusting its conduct to others with superior military skills. Finally, he fortified his authority against further insurrections by publicly executing prominent rebels, an act of violence

The Roman territory ( ager Romanus) never increased. It remained enclosed within the immutable limits which the kings had traced for it, and which the ceremony of the Ambarvalia sanctified every year. What increased with every conquest was the dominion of Rome ( imperium Romanum).