We learn something not only when we connect it to prior knowledge and try to understand its broader implications (elaboration), but also when we try to retrieve it at different times (spacing) in different contexts (variation), ideally with the help of chance (contextual interference) and with a deliberate effort (retrieval).

Immediately after reading our textbook or our class notes, information is fully present in our mind. It sits in our conscious working memory, in an active form. We feel as if we know it, because it is present in our short-term storage space . . . but this short-term compartment has nothing to do with the long-term memory that we will need in order

And all learners benefit from focused attention, active engagement, error feedback, and a cycle of daily rehearsal and nightly consolidation—I call these factors the “four pillars” of learning,

or already know. You can do this through elaboration or interleaving. Don’t procrastinate when you’re trying to learn—it takes many days to build the solid neural architecture of good learning. The Pomodoro Technique can be very helpful here. Exercise regularly. Exercise has been shown to help you more easily form neural connections. Cautious use o